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Taoist alchemists often use this alternate version of the.Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in in China by the 10th centuryit was used in by 1290.
From China, the use of spread to Japan, the, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.Chinese alchemy was closely connected to forms of, such as. In the early, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuanmastering of theetc.)Medieval Europe. 'An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts', ca.
15th century.The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of 's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century, through contributors like.
Translations of the time included the, and the works of. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West.
In the early 13th century, used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists.
In the 13th century, and were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student.Roger Bacon, a who wrote on a wide variety of topics including, and medicine, composed his (: Opus Majus) for as part of a project towards rebuilding the curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life.
His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.
In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a capable of answering its owner's questions.Soon after Bacon, the influential work of (sometimes identified as ) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods.
It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the ). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made and about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam.
By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves., and all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. 's 1317 edict, forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV ). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.
Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations.
Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone.
And made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.Renaissance and early modern Europe. The red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th-century alchemical text,. The word, meaning 'redness', was adopted by alchemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work.During the, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.In the late 15th century, translated the and the works of Plato into Latin.
These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. And guided alchemists away from to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.Philippus Aureolus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, 'Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.'
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His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning to separate and to join together, based on the Latin alchemic maxim: solve et coagula).
Also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.(13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as, cryptographer, and consultant to, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work.
His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. During the 17th century, a short-lived 'supernatural' interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the:. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones., in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate., and all contracted alchemists. John's son worked as a court physician to and but also compiled the alchemical book. Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes.
From Spiegel der Kunst und Natur.Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from and earlier Greek.
As such, the appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven and the corresponding seven. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of and are central to the theory of the.Hermeticism Part of onMythology. Main article:The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors., a blackening or melanosis., a whitening or leucosis., a yellowing or xanthosis., a reddening, purpling, or iosisModern alchemy Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science and, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the and have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, 'occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances', which has contributed to a merger of and alchemy in popular thought.Traditional medicine.
Main articles: andTraditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In, the are claimed to transform and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.Spagyrists of the 20th century, and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods.
The schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature and The Paracelsus Research Society, popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice.Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called 'process of individuation'.
He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this 'process of ' of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces that influence all of life.Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works,. Ralph Metzner, speaking to CG Jung Society of Seattle, 2014, sees the in the work of alchemists. Literature.
Main article:Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from to, and also the popular Japanese manga. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of.Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy.
While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers.
In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.Modern science One goal of alchemy, synthesizing gold, is now technologically possible, though not financially practical. Gold has been synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941.See also.
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